Abstract
For some time, there has been a realisation among Genetic Programming researchers that relying on a single scalar fitness value to drive evolutionary search is no longer a satisfactory approach. Instead, efforts are being made to gain richer insights into the complexity of program behaviour. To this end, particular attention has been focused on the notion of semantic space. In this paper we propose and unified hierarchical approach which decomposes program behaviour into semantic, result and adjudicated spaces, where adjudicated space sits at the top of the behavioural hierarchy and represents an abstraction of program behaviour that focuses on the success or failure of candidate solutions in solving problem sub-components. We show that better, smaller solutions are discovered when crossover is directed in adjudicated space. We investigate the effectiveness of several possible adjudicated strategies on a variety of classification and symbolic regression problems, and show that both of our novel pillage and barter tactics significantly outperform both a standard genetic programming and an enhanced genetic programming configuration on the fourteen problems studied. The proposed method is extremely effective when incorporated into a standard Genetic Programming structure but should also complement several other semantic approaches proposed in the literature.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
References
Bache, K., Lichman, M.: UCI machine learning repository (2013). http://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml
Bassett, J., Kamath, U., De Jong, K.: A new methodology for the GP theory toolbox. In: Soule, T., Auger, A., Moore, J., Pelta, D., Solnon, C., Preuss, M., Dorin, A., Ong, Y.S., Blum, C., Silva, D.L., Neumann, F., Yu, T., Ekart, A., Browne, W., Kovacs, T., Wong, M.L., Pizzuti, C., Rowe, J., Friedrich, T., Squillero, G., Bredeche, N., Smith, S., Motsinger-Reif, A., Lozano, J., Pelikan, M., Meyer-Nienberg, S., Igel, C., Hornby, G., Doursat, R., Gustafson, S., Olague, G., Yoo, S., Clark, J., Ochoa, G., Pappa, G., Lobo, F., Tauritz, D., Branke, J., Deb, K. (eds.) Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference, GECCO 2012, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 7–11 July 2012, pp. 719–726. ACM (2012)
Beadle, L., Johnson, C.: Semantically driven crossover in genetic programming. In: Wang, J. (ed.) Proceedings of the IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence, Hong Kong, 1–6 June 2008. IEEE Computational Intelligence Society, pp. 111–116. IEEE Press (2008)
Brooks, R.A.: Cambrian Intelligence: The Early History of the New AI. MIT Press, Cambridge (1999)
Castelli, M., Vanneschi, L., Silva, S.: Prediction of the unified parkinsons disease rating scale assessment using a genetic programming system with geometric semantic genetic operators. Expert Syst. Appl. 41(10), 4608–4616 (2014)
Deb, K., Pratap, A., Agarwal, S., Meyarivan, T.: A fast and elitist multiobjective genetic algorithm: NSGA-II. IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 6(2), 182–197 (2002)
Demšar, J.: Statistical comparisons of classifiers over multiple data sets. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 7, 1–30 (2006)
Fitzgerald, J.M., Ryan, C.: For sale or wanted: directed crossover in adjudicated space. In: Rosa, A., Merelo, J.J., Dourado, A., Cadenas, J.M., Madani, K., Ruano, A., Filipe, J. (eds.) Proceedings of the 7th International Joint Conference on Computational Intelligence, ECTA 2015, Paper No. 32, Lisbon, Portugal, 12–14 November 2015. SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications (2015)
Koza, J.R.: Genetic programming: a paradigm for genetically breeding populations of computer programs to solve problems. Technical report (1990)
Krawiec, K.: Medial Crossovers for Genetic Programming. In: Moraglio, A., Silva, S., Krawiec, K., Machado, P., Cotta, C. (eds.) EuroGP 2012. LNCS, vol. 7244, pp. 61–72. Springer, Heidelberg (2012). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-29139-5_6
Krawiec, K., Lichocki, P.: Approximating geometric crossover in semantic space. In: Raidl, G., Rothlauf, F., Squillero, G., Drechsler, R., Stuetzle, T., Birattari, M., Congdon, C.B., Middendorf, M., Blum, C., Cotta, C., Bosman, P., Grahl, J., Knowles, J., Corne, D., Beyer, H.G., Stanley, K., Miller, J.F., van Hemert, J., Lenaerts, T., Ebner, M., Bacardit, J., O’Neill, M., Di Penta, M., Doerr, B., Jansen, T., Poli, R., Alba, E. (eds.) Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, GECCO 2009, Montreal, 8–12 July 2009, pp. 987–994. ACM (2009)
Krawiec, K., Liskowski, P.: Automatic derivation of search objectives for test-based genetic programming. In: Machado, P., Heywood, M.I., McDermott, J., Castelli, M., García-Sánchez, P., Burelli, P., Risi, S., Sim, K. (eds.) EuroGP 2015. LNCS, vol. 9025, pp. 53–65. Springer, Heidelberg (2015). doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16501-1_5
Krawiec, K., O’Reilly, U.M.: Behavioral programming: a broader and more detailed take on semantic GP. In: Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, pp. 935–942. ACM (2014)
Langdon, W.B.: Directed crossover within genetic programming. Research Note RN/95/71, University College London, UK. http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/W.Langdon/ftp/papers/directed_crossover.pdf
Langdon, W.B.: Size fair and homologous tree genetic programming crossovers. In: Banzhaf, W., Daida, J., Eiben, A.E., Garzon, M.H., Honavar, V., Jakiela, M., Smith, R.E. (eds.) Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA, 13–17 July 1999, vol. 2, pp. 1092–1097. Morgan Kaufmann (1999). http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/W.Langdon/ftp/papers/WBL.gecco99.fairxo.ps.gz
Lehman, J., Stanley, K.O.: Exploiting open-endedness to solve problems through the search for novelty. In: ALIFE, pp. 329–336 (2008)
Lehman, J., Stanley, K.O.: Efficiently evolving programs through the search for novelty. In: Branke, J., Pelikan, M., Alba, E., Arnold, D.V., Bongard, J., Brabazon, A., Branke, J., Butz, M.V., Clune, J., Cohen, M., Deb, K., Engelbrecht, A.P., Krasnogor, N., Miller, J.F., O’Neill, M., Sastry, K., Thierens, D., van Hemert, J., Vanneschi, L., Witt, C. (eds.) Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, GECCO 2010, Portland, Oregon, USA, 7–11 July 2010, pp. 837–844. ACM (2010)
Majeed, H., Ryan, C.: Using context-aware crossover to improve the performance of GP. In: Keijzer, M., Cattolico, M., Arnold, D., Babovic, V., Blum, C., Bosman, P., Butz, M.V., Coello Coello, C., Dasgupta, D., Ficici, S.G., Foster, J., Hernandez-Aguirre, A., Hornby, G., Lipson, H., McMinn, P., Moore, J., Raidl, G., Rothlauf, F., Ryan, C., Thierens, D. (eds.) Proceedings of the 8th Annual Conference on Genetic and Evolutionary Computation, GECCO 2006, Seattle, Washington, USA, 8–12 Jul 2006, vol. 1, pp. 847–854. ACM Press. http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~wbl/biblio/gecco2006/docs/p847.pdf
Moraglio, A., Krawiec, K., Johnson, C.G.: Geometric semantic genetic programming. In: Coello, C.A.C., Cutello, V., Deb, K., Forrest, S., Nicosia, G., Pavone, M. (eds.) PPSN 2012. LNCS, vol. 7491, pp. 21–31. Springer, Heidelberg (2012). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32937-1_3
Moraglio, A., Poli, R.: Topological interpretation of crossover. In: Deb, K. (ed.) GECCO 2004. LNCS, vol. 3102, pp. 1377–1388. Springer, Heidelberg (2004). doi:10.1007/978-3-540-24854-5_131
Moraglio, A., Poli, R.: Geometric landscape of homologous crossover for syntactic trees. In: Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation (CEC 2005), Edinburgh, 2–4 September 2005, vol. 1, pp. 427–434. IEEE (2005) http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~amoragn/cec2005fin.PDF
Moraglio, A., Poli, R., Seehuus, R.: Geometric crossover for biological sequences. In: Collet, P., Tomassini, M., Ebner, M., Gustafson, S., Ekárt, A. (eds.) EuroGP 2006. LNCS, vol. 3905, pp. 121–132. Springer, Heidelberg (2006). doi:10.1007/11729976_11
Naredo, E., Trujillo, L., Martínez, Y.: Searching for novel classifiers. In: Krawiec, K., Moraglio, A., Hu, T., Etaner-Uyar, A.Ş., Hu, B. (eds.) EuroGP 2013. LNCS, vol. 7831, pp. 145–156. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37207-0_13
Nguyen, Q.U., Nguyen, X.H., O’Neill, M.: Semantic aware crossover for genetic programming: the case for real-valued function regression. In: Vanneschi, L., Gustafson, S., Moraglio, A., Falco, I., Ebner, M. (eds.) EuroGP 2009. LNCS, vol. 5481, pp. 292–302. Springer, Heidelberg (2009). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01181-8_25
Pawlak, T.P., Wieloch, B., Krawiec, K.: Review and comparative analysis of geometric semantic crossovers. Genet. Program. Evolvable Mach. 16, 351–386 (2014)
Ruberto, S., Vanneschi, L., Castelli, M., Silva, S.: ESAGP – a semantic GP framework based on alignment in the error space. In: Nicolau, M., Krawiec, K., Heywood, M.I., Castelli, M., García-Sánchez, P., Merelo, J.J., Rivas Santos, V.M., Sim, K. (eds.) EuroGP 2014. LNCS, vol. 8599, pp. 150–161. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44303-3_13
Trujillo, L., Muñoz, L., Naredo, E., Martínez, Y.: NEAT, there’s no bloat. In: Nicolau, M., Krawiec, K., Heywood, M.I., Castelli, M., García-Sánchez, P., Merelo, J.J., Rivas Santos, V.M., Sim, K. (eds.) EuroGP 2014. LNCS, vol. 8599, pp. 174–185. Springer, Heidelberg (2014). doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44303-3_15
Trujillo, L., Naredo, E., Martinez, Y.: Preliminary study of bloat in genetic programming with behavior-based search. In: Emmerich, M., Deutz, A., Schuetze, O., Bäck, T., Tantar, E., Tantar, A.-A., Del Moral, P., Legrand, P., Bouvry, P., Coello, C.A. (eds.) EVOLVE - A Bridge between Probability, Set Oriented Numerics, and Evolutionary Computation IV. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 227, pp. 293–305. Springer, Cham (2013)
Uy, N.Q., Hoai, N.X., O’Neill, M., McKay, B., Galván-López, E.: An analysis of semantic aware crossover. In: Cai, Z., Li, Z., Kang, Z., Liu, Y. (eds.) ISICA 2009. CCIS, vol. 51, pp. 56–65. Springer, Heidelberg (2009). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04962-0_7
Uy, N.Q., Hoai, N.X., O’Neill, M., McKay, R.I., Galván-López, E.: Semantically-based crossover in genetic programming: application to real-valued symbolic regression. Genet. Program. Evolvable Mach. 12(2), 91–119 (2011)
Vanneschi, L., Castelli, M., Silva, S.: A survey of semantic methods in genetic programming. Genet. Program. Evolvable Mach. 15(2), 195–214 (2014). http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10710-013-9210-0
Acknowledgement
We gratefully acknowledge the support of Science Foundation Ireland. Grant No. 10/IN.1/I3031.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Fitzgerald, J.M., Ryan, C. (2017). Adjudicated GP: A Behavioural Approach to Selective Breeding. In: Merelo, J.J., et al. Computational Intelligence. IJCCI 2015. Studies in Computational Intelligence, vol 669. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48506-5_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48506-5_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-48504-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-48506-5
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)